Motivation for the study: The motivation for the study started from the fact that the world is characterised by a high degree of mobility. Subsequently, social, political and economic processes and outcomes within nation states are significantly impacted by migration, making it untenable to understand political processes solely by looking at actors within states. In parallel, in the context of transnational movements, concepts of citizenship have expanded beyond the nation state, and citizenship is in various ways conceived of as a relational practice. In such an understanding, citizenship moves away from legal status, but focuses on concrete, often everyday acts. Focusing on such acts of citizenship makes it possible to analyse citizenship as a practice related to homelands, hostlands, or the wider transnational social field in often interconnected and overlapping ways. The study brought a critical analysis of these strands of literature together and investigated how practices of citizenship among emerging diaspora constitute (political) belonging and unbelonging - to the homeland but also the hostland and the transnational social field. In a further step, it also investigated what forms of political engagement or non-engagement may emerge from such practices. In order to say something meaningful about these theoretical and empirical questions, three cities in the wider Horn of Africa were chosen as case study locations, as the Horn is a prototypical example of an origin-area of out-migration and a region where many migrants stay in neighbouring countries, near their homeland. Focusing on how migrants become emerging diasporas, the project looked at migrants from Ethiopia and Eritrea who reside in key cities of the region, namely Addis Ababa; Khartoum; and Nairobi. Such a detailed focus allowed to understand how migration shapes lived citizenship practices, political belonging and engagement, and this in turn speaks to the wider debates on patterns of migration, belonging and transnationalism, but also the potential and pitfalls of conceptions of lived citizenship. Aims and Topics covered: The overall aim of the project has been to improve our understanding of the ways in which diaspora populations embrace, subvert and refine ideas, narratives and practices of citizenship and establish different forms of (political) belonging and unbelonging to their homeland, their place of residence and the wider transnational social field. The project was conceived as having an extensive qualitative component that would have included (in addition to in-depths interviews) participant observation; knowledge production by participants (based on methods like photo-voice); and co-production of knowledge through dissemination activities. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the only possible means of data collection became in-depth virtual interviews (for a discussion of these changes in data collection methods and the potential and pitfalls, please refer to the sections on methods). These interviews still allowed to achieve the key objectives of the project: a detailed analysis of how emerging Eritrean and Ethiopian diaspora perform and practice citizenship, and through these performances assert political belonging in relation to Eritrea and Ethiopia, their host-cities in neighbouring countries (Addis Ababa; Khartoum; Nairobi) and the wider Eritrean and Ethiopian diaspora spread across the world. Following a lose interview guide, the project data provided key insights into how political belonging is produced, performed, and contested by emerging Eritrean and Ethiopian diaspora through acts of citizenship. This then contributed to an interrogation of the concept of transnational lived citizenship as a useful theoretical framing for understanding political belonging in relation to homelands, hostlands and the transnational social field of emerging diaspora. It built on previous work on diaspora that has examined everyday practices as expressions of belonging and identification and brought this together with work on diaspora politics and contested connections to and beyond the nation state. The COVID-19 pandemic provided an additional lens to interrogate lived citizenship practices and changing patterns of belonging, and how those may be transformed by intersecting crises, as did the outbreak of internal armed conflict in Ethiopia during the interview phase that also involved Eritrea. Key findings: The project contributed first to the call to re-theorise transnational citizenship practices as a specific form of political belonging going beyond the nation-state but at the same time intimately linked to it.

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